HOOKE'S LAW Introduction In physics, Hooke's Law is one of the fundamental principles governing how objects deform under external forces . Named after the 17th-century British physicist Robert Hooke, this law provides a crucial understanding of the behavior of elastic materials, such as springs and rubber bands. Whether stretching a rubber band or compressing a spring, Hooke's Law helps explain what happens when forces act on these materials. What is Hooke's Law: Hooke's Law states that the force F needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance x is proportional to that distance. Mathematically, it is expressed as: F= -kx Here k represents the spring constant, which is the measure of the stiffness of the spring, and x is the displacement from the displacement position. The negative sign indicates that the force exerted by the spring is in the opposite direction of the displacement. Understanding the Spring Constant: The spring constant k is a critical co
EVOLUTIONS OF COMPUTERS
The computers which we see today are modern shape of computers
which have been evolved since centuries. The evolution of computers is
generally divided in following three eras.
(i) Mechanical Era (Dark Age):
- Men have been trying to invent machines that can solve mathematical problems.
- In mechanical era, human became successful to make simple machines that could help performing simple arithmetic operation, in other words computing.
- These machines were manually operated since the electricity was not invented.
(a) Abacus (3000 B.C):
- Abacus was invented about 5000 years ago.
- It is also known as counting frame.
- Abacus is still used to teach basic arithmetic operations to the students.
- Abacus is considered as first computer prototype.
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| Abacus 3000 BC |
- Scottish mathematician John Napier developed Napier's Bones, in 1612.
- It is also called Napier's Rods.
- . It was a small machine that contained ten rods.
- The rods were made up of bones, wood or metal.
- Napier's Bones was used for multiplication and division.
- English mathematician William Oughtred invented a Slide Rule.
- This was basically a pair of two moveable rules placed side by side.
- They had a standardized set of markings called scales.These scales were used for mathematical computations.
- Slide Rule was used to multiply and divide numbers. The modern slide rules are still used in some countries.
(d) Pascaline or Pascal's Calculator (1642 A.D.)
- French mathematician Blaise Pascal invented a mechanical calculator which was called Pascaline.
- He developed this machine to help his father who was a tax collector.
- Pascaline can perform addition and subtraction by eight figures.
- User had to adjust wheels in order to perform these calculations.
- Leibniz's Calculator was developed by the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
- . It was also called stepped reckoner.
- It was the first calculator that could perform all four basic arithmetic operations; addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
- Charles Babbage was an English mathematician and mechanical engineer. He is known as Father of Computer because he developed the first complete computing machine.
- His first invention was Difference Engine.
- It was an automatic mechanical calculator.
- Difference Engine was a large machine, made of metal and was powered by steam.
- The Difference Engine had storage (mechanical memory) that could hold the data temporarily for processing and to store results.
- . It was used to allow a user to enter calculations and get printed results. The Difference Engine worked on difference equations.
- , Charles Babbage designed but could not build a very big machine in 1837.
- This was named Analytical Engine. The proposed design included an ALU with basic programmatic flow control.
- It was programmed using punched cards and contained integrated memory.
- Historians consider it to be the first design concept of a general-purpose computer because of its comprehensive design.
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